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2011年10月28日 星期五

「小器」的英文是什麼?


古德明是現今香港有數的英文語法專家,這是無可否認的事實。但不知何故最近他卻頻頻出錯,可能是看得太多有關戰爭的英文書吧!繼completely rubbishgood on computers之後,昨日又有人問到:

問:「小器」漢英字典多譯做 tight-fisted miserly stingy等,但這些字都是指不捨得花錢。要說器量小、動不動惱恨人家,英文有什麼形容詞可用?
答:英文恐怕沒有一個形容詞可以表達「器量小得動不動就惱恨人家」。讀者說的那個「小器」,則可譯做 small-minded intolerant,例如: He is very small-minded/intolerant and takes offence/gets upset very easily(他心胸狹窄,很容易生氣)。

看完他的答案當然循例要「O吓咀」啦!其實古德明這句說話根本就有語病;讀者說的「小器」正是指「器量小得動不動就惱恨人家」。古德明認為英文的形容詞中沒有相近的說法,但轉頭卻說可譯做small-mindedintolerant,實在有點語無倫次。現在讓我慢慢重頭說起關於「小器」的英譯!

「小器」或「小氣」這二字有很多解釋,其中一個正是讀者提到「吝嗇」的意思。英文中有很多表達方法,這個讀者已經舉例,大猩猩就不贅了。但我們香港人說人家不肯花錢,除了說「小器」之外,更常見的說法是廣東俗語「孤寒」。而「小器」這詞在香港則通常是用作像讀者提到的那樣,指人「器量小、動不動就惱恨人家」。那麼這個意思的英文是甚麼呢?

古德明的例句中用到takes offence (very) easily其實已可作「小器」的準確英譯,但為了要滿足讀者的要求,要找來一個相關的形容詞,古德明於是說:「小器」可譯做 small-minded intolerant。大家知道這二個英文字是甚麼意思嗎?我們來看看字典的解釋:

1. small-minded

def having fixed opinions and ways of doing things and not willing to change them or consider other peoples opinions or feelings; interested in small problems and details and not things which are really important. (Oxford, p. 1453-1454)

e.g. People around here are so small-minded. (Longman, p. 1657)

2. intolerant(不同於intolerable =「不能忍受」)

def not willing to accept behaviours, beliefs, or opinions that are different from your own. (Macmillan, p. 795)

e.g. This ban is a sad reflection of an intolerant society. (Macmillan, p. 795)

e.g. She can be very intolerant of students who dont understand what shes talking about. (Cambridge, p. 758)

「橫睇掂睇」上面字典的解釋都覺得small-mindedintolerant「小器」的意思有一段頗大的距離,而我相信稍為明理的人都會同意我的看法。根據字典的解釋,small-mindedintolerant的意思應是「固執己見,思想狹隘,偏執和只執著於一些細眉細眼的事」等等。我們的語法專家是不是記錯了?

那麼「小器」這字是不是真如古德明所說沒有相關的中譯呢?我倒認為不是,雖然意思不是絕對相同,但我覺得「器量小、動不動惱恨人家」可以譯作vindictiveunforgiving。看看這些字的英文解釋是甚麼:

1. vindictive

def someone who is vindictive is cruel to anyone who hurts them and will not forgive them. (Macmillan, p. 1662)

def (people) deliberately try to upset or cause trouble for someone who they think has done them harm. (Cobuild, p. 1748)
e.g. a vindictive attempt to punish me for forgetting his birthday. (Macmillan, p. 1662)

e.g. a vindictive woman desperate for revenge against the man who loved and left her. (Cobuild, p. 1748)

2. unforgiving

def unwilling to forgive other people when they have done something wrong. (Oxford, p. 1686)

e.g. He was an unforgiving man who never forgot a slight. (Cobuild, p. 1709)

雖然市面上大部份的大型英漢詞典都將small-minded解釋為「氣量小,心胸狹窄」,但在參較過其它英文詞典和一些英文網站的解釋後,我認為這中譯並不可靠。網友們在看過上面的解說後,可以自行判斷那一個譯法較為穩妥。另外,有補習天后提議可用narrow-mindedpetty來形容「小氣,心胸狹窄」的人。我細想後覺得也不是十分合適,因narrow-minded的意思是「不肯接受新事物或別人的意見」,而petty則是解「對小事斤斤計較」,二者(其實等同small-minded)都跟「心胸狹窄」有一點不同。

其實我覺得想要用英文說「小器,容易因別人對你做的事而動怒」,簡單說get offended easily/take offence (at sb) easilybear grudges against others easily就可以了,不必要囿於用一個單一的英文形容詞。另外,我認為要表達「小器」的意思,讀者們還可以考慮用一些和生氣(angry)有關的字,它們都跟我們所說的「小器」十分相近。例如irritable, touchy, crotchety, crabby, grumpy, bad/short/quick-tempered等等,這些字都是解作「容易生氣的」,詳細用法請大家參看字典裡的例句。

順帶一提,「小器」的反義詞是「大量」或「大度」(大陸說法),英文可用magnanimous這個較正式的字註:generous是慷概,別混淆了。最後要特別提醒一下大家,老師說的話不一定都對;可以的話大家還是應該盡量查查字典,印證老師的說法,這樣才是正確的學習之道。

 

2011年9月13日 星期二

Past Perfect Tense


這篇網誌的初稿在一個月前便寫起了,只是資料比較繁複,所以直到今天趁公衆假期(其實我天天都是假期 )才「的起心肝」將它整理好。這篇文章標題簡單,但內容其實比較複雜也頗長,大家要耐心點看。

早前有人去信古德明的專欄問了以下的問題:

問:讀 National Geographic(國家地理雜誌),見到以下一句: I had worked in British Columbia's Great Bear Rainforest 26 years ago。說明事情什麼時候發生的句子,不是不可以用完成式動詞的嗎?
答:現在完成式( present perfect tense)動詞,一般的確不會用於說明事發時間的句子,例如 I saw him yesterday一語,改用現在完成式,就是 I have seen him,不可說 I have seen him yesterday。不過,過去完成式( past perfect tense)動詞卻不同,可以說明時間。牛津出版社 A Practical English Grammar(實用英語文法)第十八章就有以下例句: He met her in Paris in 1977. He had last seen her ten years before

我看了古德明的說法,覺得很狐疑,因為這顛覆了我一向對past perfect tense這課題的認知。在求真的心態駒使下,我做了點研究看看孰是孰非。首先我們來看看古德明為什麼會這樣說。唔講唔知,原來他曾為A Practical English Grammar (4/ed) 寫英漢版的序言,這就不難理解為何他會以這本書的說法為依歸。A Practical English Grammar的確是一本詳備的文法書,特別是在上世紀七、八十年代而言。在當時這類文法書在市場上是相當罕有的(Michael SwanPractical English Usage要等到八十年代初才面世)。但我認為一個學者不能單就一本書的說法而匆匆妄下定論。

無疑,該書在第十八章討論past perfect tense時說到「過去完成式」不同於「現在完成式」,它是可以用在有明確time expression的句子中的。Thomson & Martinet並舉了下列的例子以作解釋:

e.g. I had left the case on the 4:40 train. (p. 175)

單就這例子而論,的確是將「過去完成式」用在一個過去的時間上,但我們先別急於下判斷。我認為值得留意的反而是古德明在解說時並沒有援引這例,他舉了書中的另外一個例子來解答讀者的問題。但正因為這例子,顯示他錯誤理解了「過去完成式」的一些較細微的用法。

現在我們先看其他學者對past perfect tense有甚麼說法,看看是否能從中找到一些蛛絲馬跡。Michael Swan Practical English Usage中提到:

”The past perfect is not used simply to say hat something happened some time ago” (Swan, p. 424)

另外,Lancaster UniversityProfessor Geoffrey Leech 也在其著作An A-Z of English Grammar and Usage中清楚說明下面的例子錯用了過去完成時態,應改用過去式:

e.g. Last week we had enjoyed a visit to London. (Leech et al. p. 437).x

市場上的英文文法書中,Mark Newbrook的著作Exploring English Errors是唯一清楚地說明past perfect tense不能和ago這字走在一起,它只會跟before這類副詞連用。而這說法也回應了SwanLeech的觀點,即past perfect tense不能放在有明確finished time expression(例如last year, 2 months ago, in 1972等等)的句子中。這類句子的動詞都要用past tense

故事當然未完。細心的人就會問:那為什麼A Practical English Grammar裡仍然會有 ”He had last seen her ten years before” 這樣的例子呢?要解釋這點,我們先看另一段網上的資料。網站Englishpage.compast perfect tense有這樣的解說:

Unlike with the Present Perfect, it is possible to use specific time words or phrases with the Past Perfect. Although this is possible, it is usually not necessary.

e.g. She had visited her Japanese relatives once in 1993 before she moved in with them in 1996.

Moreover, if the Past Perfect action did occur at a specific time, the Simple Past can be used instead of the Past Perfect when "before" or "after" is used in the sentence. The words "before" and "after" actually tell you what happens first, so the Past Perfect is optional. For this reason, both sentences below are correct.

e.g. She had visited her Japanese relatives once in 1993 before she moved in with them in 1996.

e.g. She visited her Japanese relatives once in 1993 before she moved in with them in 1996.

大家看完後有甚麼發現沒有?我們試比較一下A Practical English GrammarEnglishpage.com所列出的例句便會明白:

例一: He met her in Paris in 1977. He had last seen her ten years before.

例二: She had visited her Japanese relatives once in 1993 before she moved in with them in 1996.

見到嗎?每句例句其實都牽涉了二個相關的動作。而past perfect tense的一個最大的特點就是比較一先一後所發生的過去事情。所以在以上二句例句中,雖然四個動作都有其已完成的時間(finished time expressions),但我們仍然可以用past perfect tense來表達那個較先完成的那個動作。大陸語法學家張道真在其《實用英語語法》中就說到past perfect tense經常會用在敘述故事中較早發生的事情上。

語法專家George Davidson在其著作Verbs and Tenses中也清楚說明The past perfect tense is (also) used to refer to actions or events that happened before a stated time in the past. (p. 213) John EastwoodOxford Learner’s Grammar中則解釋了past perfect tense用在副詞before之前的原因。看看下面二句例句:

eg. Rachel joined the company five years ago (= five years before now)

eg. Rachel left the company last year. She’d joined them five years before. (= five years before last year)(英漢版, p. 421

他說「從過去回顧更早的時間,通常要用副詞before。這要比She’d joined them five years ago更常見。」從這二句例句中,我們可以看到二個動作在時間上的比較。另外,Collins Cobuild English Grammar (3/ed) 也指出:

“You can use an adverb such as beforehand or earlier to refer to time that preceded a particular period of time, or an event.”

eg. She had seen him only five hours earlier. (p. 221)

另外,Macmillan English Dictionary的例子:

e.g. A few days earlier, he had assured me that he didn’t want to come. (Macmillan, p. 465)

這些副詞如earlier (than sth)before (sth)都體現了在有明確的finished time expression時,只有在比較二個先後動作的情況下才應用上past perfect tense

National Geographic那一句只有一個動作,沒有比較,所以在有finished time expressionie. 26 years ago)的情況下用上past perfect tense,文法上肯定是錯的(外國人的英文不一定都對)。古德明錯在解答時沒有給讀者一句qualifying statement,便妄然引用Thomson & Martinet的例句來證明自己的說法,不知就裡的學生很容易因此而中招。所以簡言之,在有finished time expressions的情況下(特別是beforeearliertime adverbials),若是有二個已經完成的動作,較先完成的我們可用past perfect tense來表達。但若只有一個完成動作,而完成時間也清楚列出時,那動詞只能用simple past tense

2011年8月15日 星期一

Completely rubbish - 啱定錯?


最近有位政府高官說了一句英文I think that is completely rubbish,反响很大。這位高官的能力怎樣,明眼人都能看得出來。看他的表現,而仍能身居要職,其運氣之佳也是世所罕見,我認為這是研究命理學的絕佳例子。

言歸正傳,古德明看過那句英文後覺得是錯的,因為他認為在英文裡副詞不可以修飾名詞,正確的句式要麼就是「刑容詞+名詞」,要麼就是「副詞+刑容詞」,這是小學英文常識。他這評論在網上轉載的人很多,像在今天生果日報的副刊論壇中就有人提到。

然而,大猩猩對這問題卻有不同的見解。當我第一次聽到這句英文時,我也立刻有一個疑問:這是錯的嗎?但看了這麼多年英文後,直覺卻告訴自己這應該是對的。看到古德明的評語後,自己做了點功課,現在將我的見解寫出來和網友分享一下。

首先,我來問一問大家,副詞的作用是甚麼?正如古德明所說,這應該是小學英文常識,但我相信不單止中學生,就是很多大學生也不一定答得出來。傳統的語法書會說副詞是用來修飾動詞,形容詞和其他副詞的。這解釋了為什麼古德明,甚至現在很多grammarians,都仍然會認為副詞是不能用來修飾名詞的。

既然是這樣,那麼我們來看看以下這句子,裡面的副詞是修飾甚麼的呢:

The sauce is mostly cream. (Oxford, p. 997)

這句句子沒有形容詞,只有一個verb to beis),一個冠詞(the),二個名詞(sauce & cream)和一個副詞(mostly)。很明顯mostly不是用來修飾isthe,那mostly便只能修飾二個名詞的其中之一個,而細心一看便會知道mostly是修飾cream,而不是sauce的。同樣的例子在英文字典裡可謂不勝枚舉:

Soccer is primarily a winter game. (Cambridge, p. 1125)

The hunger in parts of Africa is terrible – there is simply no other words for it. (Cambridge, p., 1340)

She did absolutely no work. (Oxford, p. 5)

The problem is not primarily a financial one. (Oxford, p. 1203)

He has absolutely no experience of marketing. (Longman, p. 6)

What we need is not simply a smaller organization, but a more efficient one. (Longman, p. 1635)

It ‘s not simply a question of money. (Longman, p. 1635)

They have absolutely no idea how this happened. (Macmillan, p. 6)

What I’m saying is purely my own point of view. (Macmillan, p. 1204)

看到嗎,所有副詞的前後都是名詞或名詞子句。為什麼會這樣?是文法書錯了嗎?其實我們一般讀的初、中階文法書只集中於討論基本的文法,一些較少用的語法常識因而便往往為人所忽略。所以,「副詞只修飾動詞,形容詞和其他副詞」是一句over-generalized statement,情況就像「以a,e,i,o,u開頭的英文字,前面的冠詞應用an」這不完全正確的說法一樣。

另外,現在很少書會再如上述般這樣解釋副詞了。一些語言學家也趨向少用修飾(modify)這字,代之的是將副詞解釋為對句子中的動作,行為或狀態提供附加資訊的一種詞類。所以副詞不單可用作修飾verbadjective和其他adverb,它還可用來修飾nounnoun phrase, numeraldeterminerpronounprepositional phrase,並有時作為句子的complementWebster’s Dictionary of English Usage便對副詞下了這樣的一個定義:

”Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, other adverbs, verbals, phrases, clauses, and sentences. They probably even modify nouns on occasion (Webster, p. 36).”


除此之外,Professor Geoffrey Leech et al. 在他們的著作Longman Student Grammar of Spoken and Written English (2002) 中也提到:

“Adverbs can also modify noun phrases (or parts of noun phrases), prepositional phrases, particles, numerals, or measurements:

e.g. ‘It came as quite a surprise,’ said one. (p. 206)”

但有些英文還不錯的人,總是抱著「副詞絕不能修飾名詞」這想法,但卻又見到很多外國人真的寫completely rubbish,於是便狗急跳牆,硬說副詞completely是用來修飾前面的 is verb to be)的,妄圖自圓其說,這是名符其實的「讀死書」。其實想想都知道這說法是站不住腳的。試看看下面的例子:

I enjoy the company of young people, especially my grandchildren. (Cobuild Grammar, p. 425)

In some communities, notably the inner cities, the treatment has backfired. (Cobuild Grammar, p. 425)

在上述二例中連verb to be都沒有,你們不會又說especiallynotably是用來修飾遠處的動詞enjoybackfired吧?因為這絕對是狗屁不通的。再多看一些其他的例句:

He’s travelled widely, chiefly in Africa and Asia. (Oxford, p. 252)

這裏副詞widely修飾前面的動詞travelled,你們不會認為另一個副詞chiefly也是修飾那動詞而非後面的phrase吧?

We talked about many things, work mainly. (Longman, p. 1054)

同樣地,mainly很明顯是用來修飾前面的名詞work的,說它是修飾動詞talked是無論如何在位置或意思上都說不過去的。所以當要解釋一件事情時,我們應細心考慮和衡量自己所提供的理由是否言之成理,是否有任何漏洞予人駁斥之機會。這是很基本的常識啊!現在這題目中的副詞分明是在修飾後面的名詞,提供一種強調的資訊,若論者仍要立心找藉口詭辯,實在是愚不可及。


又有另一些人,偶然發現原來
rubbish這字也可作形容詞用,立刻如獲至寶,說completely rubbish文法是正確的,因為現在副詞completely現在修飾的是形容詞,完全合乎文法規定。然而,當rubbish作形容詞時,是個英式非正式用法,解作「沒價值」或「沒用處」的,跟用者原本所要表達的「廢話」意思稍有不同。其實說到底,人們被這「副詞不能修飾名詞」的錯誤觀念害得夠深,而香港人也大多不願意用腦看書,只知盲目聽信那些所謂專家之言,在一些根本不存在的問題上大兜圈子,自尋煩惱!

若要詳述副詞這課題,大可以寫一本小書,我這裏只述說一些跟今天網誌題目有關的。副詞分很多種,其中一種是程度副詞(adverb of degree)。而這類副詞的其中一個作用是強調句子中的某部份,像以上的mostly, absolutely, mainly, primarily, simply等便是。這類副詞對附近的一些名詞或名詞子句提供了額外的資訊,Cobuild叫這類副詞或狀語做adverbials for focusing,即集中論述某些人或事,強調程度的不同。除了名詞或名詞子句外,這類副詞還可以接介系詞子句(prepositional phrases),例如:

I saw the letter purely by chance. (Oxford, p. 1233)

Green teas are mostly from China or Japan. (Longman, p. 1136)

Many tourists visit the region, generally for skiing. (Longman, p. 1136)

He got together with her purely for business reasons. (Macmillan, p. 1204)

There are branches of the shop all over the country, chiefly in the south. (Macmillan, p. 247)

另外,這些副詞也可和連接詞because等字一起用,帶出後面的clausephrase,用來解釋事情的主要原因,如:

I don’t go out much, mainly because I have to look after the kids. (Longman, p. 1054)

Some students lose marks simply because they don’t read the question properly. (Longman, p. 1635)

The majority said they work mostly because they need the money. (Macmillan, p. 974)

Bone marrow transplants are a controversial procedure, primarily because of the high costs involved. (Macmillan, p. 1176)

除了修飾個別詞組外,一些副詞也可以用來修飾整句句子,這類副詞叫sentence adverbs,例如:

We’ve had a very bad year financially. (Cobuild Grammar, p. 422)

Basically, the older you get, the harder it becomes. (Cobuild Grammar, p. 422)

正如上述,既然副詞也可以修飾名詞,那I think that is completely rubbish便當然不能算是錯,至少在文法結構上可以這樣說。Completely雖然並不是 focusing adverb,但它跟absolutelypurelysimply一樣,都是emphasizing adverbs。這類強調性的副詞也是經常用來修飾後面的名詞或名詞子句的,其他的emphasizing adverbs 還有entirely, really, totally, truly, quite, just, perfectly 等等(Cobuild Grammar, p. 312)。相關例句如下:

It isn’t really a dictionary – it’s a sort of phrase book. (Macmillan, p. 1235)

There’s really no need to worry. (Macmillan, p. 1235)

Mushrooms aren’t truly vegetables, but many people think they are. (Cambridge, p. 1562)

I admit it was entirely my fault. (Cambridge, p. 469)

事實上,上網一查completely rubbish這說法還是挺多外國人用的,但更普遍的說法卻是totally rubbish。所以我自己的結論是,complete/total/utter/absolute rubbish當然是最正宗的寫法,但通俗一點寫completely/totally rubbish,我們也不能視之為錯。